Church History
3rd Century
Anti-Nicene Fathers

Article IV

By the third century (200-300 A.D.), the Scriptures were translated into seven languages, including Syriac and Coptic (Egyptian). Christians were organizing themselves beyond the local level. In most cities, one elder would oversee several churches – a large church oversaw a conglomerate of house churches. Christians were also beginning to own their own buildings.

With the rise in Gnosticism, new measures had been taken for the protection of the Church. Instead of new believers being baptized right after they became new believers, as was the custom since the time of Christ, new believers received three years of training before baptism. This training was done to make sure a new believer understood what real Christianity was all about. Training, however, became the entrance into the Roman Catholic Church.

Some elders baptized infants, while others urged the parents to wait until their children came to their own personal belief in Christ for themselves. Neither group condemned the other.

Early Church Fathers

Many of the 2^nd and 3^rd century fathers of the Church, such as Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian of Carthage, and Origen were known for their writings. Most of their writings addressed heretical problems on specific issues to the Church at large – particularly in response to heretics like Marcion and the Gnostics.

The popular leaders of that day were pagan philosophers, and those who followed Platonism were the predominant class of philosophers. People considered the philosophers as wise thinkers of their day. Because of this, many anti-nicene Church fathers carried their own threads of pagan beliefs as well.

Clement of Alexandria

Born in Athens, Greece in the late 2^nd century, Clement came from pagan parentage. Athens was a city famous for its philosophers. He was converted to Christianity at an unknown date. After converting, he searched for a teacher who could give him deeper instruction in the Christian faith. He found such a man in Alexandria, Egypt – a large metropolis of trade and culture, having an active university of scholars and philosophers ready for study or debate. Intellectualism was broad and tolerant and races of people mingled together as philosophy changed as a new pagan renaissance emerged. Plato, being the most favored was present, along with neo-Platonism – a system of idealistic, spiritualistic philosophy, tending toward mysticism became popular among the people.

When his teacher died, Clement then took his place at the School in Alexandria as the main Christian instructor in the midst of a pagan society. [i] Clement was a thinker and a searcher, and “his goal was not so much to expound the traditional faith of the Church, but to help those in quest of deeper truth, and to convince pagan intellectuals that Christianity was not the absurd superstition that some claimed it to be. As such, he used “his thoughts” to call Christians to be “open to the truths in philosophy.” [ii] As such, his teachings carried influences of Greek philosophy – especially that of Plato. He considered Plato practically a prophet, as he expounded the doctrine of the trinity. He quoted Plato alongside of Scripture. He wanted to show pagans that a good part of the Christian doctrine could be supported by Plato’s philosophy. Clement headed the school from 190 – 202 A.D. until, because of persecution, he was forced to leave the city. His many writings were designed to win converts away from heathenism and polytheistic belief. Some of his writings included:

• Protrepticus ro Exhortation (a call to the Greeks to accept the Christian faith
• Pedogugue *Beginner’s handbook of Christian ethics and manners.
• Salvation of a Rich Man
• Extracts from the Prophetic Scriptures
• 8 volumes of Stromaeis is Miscellanies-to show Christian knowledge (gnosis) is superior to any other.

Clement wrote letters (epistles) to the Corinthians, similar to what Paul wrote, except his writings were filled with false doctrine. He purposed to give simple instruction for new believers and show the superiority of Christianity over paganism. He did claim, however, that much of the Scriptures were allegorically written (in parables) and sacred text has more than one meaning. Again, his teachings had threads of paganism and cannot be considered as truth.

His writings also gave commentaries on various scriptural passages. He was known as the first to present Christianity in the forms of secular literature for the Christian community. [iii]

Clement was one of the earliest inventors and contributors of the development of the false doctrine of purgatory and Christian mysticism. His primary goal was the eventual purification of the soul. Often his views resembled that of Gnosticism.

Clement traveled along the Eastern Mediterranean (Syria and Asia Minor) until his death in 215 A.D.

Tertullian of Carthage  (160-240 A.D.)

Christianity came to North Africa from Rome and grew more rapidly there than in any other western province of the Roman Empire. By the third century, Carthage was a major center for Christianity. [iv]

Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullianus (Tertullian) was born in Carthage, Africa to pagan parents in 160 A.D. As an adult he traveled to Rome to study to be a lawyer. At about the age of 40 he became a Christian. He was, however, drawn to the Montanist beliefs - its emphasis on the Holy Spirit, and rigid lifestyle. Tertullian returned to Carthage and became a presbyter at the Church at Carthage . [v]

Tertullian had a strong hatred for Gnosticism and thought it his responsibility to come against its beliefs. He charged Marcion with mutilating the New Testament Scriptures. Tertullian recognized the New Testament as a collection of books; however, he did not use the word “canon.” Tertullian wrote a number of treaties in defense of the faith against the pagans and heresies of the Church. Being acquainted with the current arguments of the Platonic, Stoic and Aristotelian schools, Tertullian considered it his role as a Christian theologian to challenge and discredit pagan philosophy and speak up for a biblical worldview.

As an educated man, Tertullian was able to publish his own writings in both Greek and Latin, of which he was the first to write his writings in the Latin language, which was now the predominant language of the western half of the Empire. Because of this, Tertullian was often considered the founder of Western theology. Tertullian also believed and practiced the gifts of the Spirit. [vi]

Tertullian left the Church after the bishop of Rome rejected the New Prophecy of the Montanists movement. He founded his own sect, which ancient writers called the “Tertullianists.” [vii] In his latter years he became a Montanist. [viii] Tertullian was a fiery champion of orthodoxy – against every sort of heresy, but he was blind to his own heretical beliefs.

Rome Turned 1000 Years Old

In 247 A.D. Rome turned 1000 years old. It citizens celebrated the New Year’s Eve for three days and night in the streets. Because of its debauchery, most Christians refused to take part in the partying. After the party was over, a plague ravaged throughout Rome.

Many Romans wondered if the Christians had angered the gods. In defense to regain the gods’ favor, Emperor Decius launched an empire-wide persecution of Christians. Those who would sacrifice to the gods received “sacrifice certificates.” Anyone who did not have a certificate could be imprisoned and tortured. Origen did not have a certificate. [ix]

Origen of Alexandria (185-254 A.D.)

Origen was the son of Christian parents, coming from Alexandria, Egypt. His father suffered martyrdom under the Roman emperor Septimius Serverus when he was a young lad. Loving his father, he set out to offer himself for martyrdom instead; however, his mother interjected and hid his clothes, preventing him to leave the home. When his father’s fortune was confiscated by imperial authorities, Origen labored to support himself, his mother, and six younger brothers. Within two years, after Clement retired, the bishop of Alexandria entrusted Origen the position of training catechumens (candidates for baptism). He taught for a number of years, developing a large following. He later devoted himself entirely to running a school of Christian philosophy, incorporating Christianity and philosophy together, which was similar to those founded by the great classical philosophers. “There he lectured, not only to Christians who came from afar to listen to him, but also to enlightened pagans drawn by his fame.” [x]

Origen renounced all physical comforts. In literal obedience to Matthew 19:12, he castrated himself. He drank only water and wore no shoes. Like many Gnostics, Origen encouraged Christians to search the Scriptures for mystic messages. [xi]

Conflict arose between Origen and Demetrius, which resulted in Origen being expelled. In 232 A.D. he left for Caesarea, Palestine and set up a new school there. It was there where he continued writing and teaching for another twenty years until the persecution under the Decian Empire.

Origen’s writings were mixed with philosophy and Scripture, being more Platonic than Christian. His works number in the thousands, including “letters, articles, apologetics, dogmatics, and practical treatises.” [xii] Origen also wrote many commentaries on the Bible. He distinguished the acknowledged books of the New Testament from those which were disputed, or doubted. In other words, he gave an early version of a New Testament Canon which was in line with the apostles.

• Undisputed books:
  Four gospels
• Book of Acts
• Pauline Epistles
• 1 Peter
• 1 John
• Apocalypse (Revelation)
• Disputed books
• 2 Peter
• 2 & 3 John
• James
• Jude

Origen was also responsible for the compilation of the “Hexapla,” meaning “sixfold” in Greek. The term stood for an edition of the Old Testament in six versions placed side by side.

The Hexapla
Hebrew	Hebrew (translated into Greek characters	Aquila of Sinope	Symmachus the Ebionite	Septuagint	Theodotion

While Origen made positive contributions to the theology of the Church, he is more commonly known for views that did not receive general acceptance among the people. Regardless, Origen was a man of prayer and had a love for God and His Word. “The extent of his dedication to Christ is clear in that during the persecution under the Emperor Decius, Origen stood true to Christ throughout imprisonment and prolonged torture, which resulted in his death. [xiii]

Emperors of the Roman Empire – 69 A.D. – 313 A.D.

Emperors of the Roman Empire from 69 A.D. 313 A.D. (Partial List)
The Flavian Empire		The Antonines
69 A.D. – 79 A.D.	Vespasian	138 A.D. – 161 A.D.	Antoninus Pius
79 A.D. – 81 A.D.	Titus	161 A.D. – 180 A.D.	Marcus Aurelius
81 A.D. – 98 A.D.	Domitian	181 A.D. – 192 A.D.	Commodus
98 A.D. – 117 A.D.	Trajan	193 A.D.	Pertinax
117 A.D. – 138 A.D.	Hadrian	193 A.D.	Didius Julianus
The Severans and Their Rivals
193 A.D. - 211 A.D.	Septimius Severus	244 A.D. – 249 A.D.	Philip I (“the Arab”)
193 A.D. – 194 A.D.	Pescennius Niger	248 A.D.	Pacatian
193 A.D. – 197 A.D.	Clodius Albinus	249 A.D.	Jotapian
211 A.D. – 217 A.D.	Caracalla	249 A.D. – 251 A.D.	Decius
211 A.D. – 212 A.D.	Geta	251 A.D. – 253 A.D.	Gallus
217 A.D. – 218 A.D.	Macinus	253 A.D.	Aemillian
218 A.D. – 222 A.D.	Elagabalus	253 A.D. – 259/60 A.D.	Valerian
222 A.D. – 235 A.D.	Severus Alexander	253 A.D. – 268 A.D.	Gallienus
235 A.D. – 238 A.D.	Maximinus (“Thrax”)	260 A.D. – 261 A.D.	Macrianus
238 A.D.	Gordian I	260 A.D. – 261 A.D.	Quietus
238 A.D.	Gordian II	260 A.D. – 261 A.D.	Regalianus
238 A.D.	Pupienus		Aemillianus (“Aegippius”)
238 A.D.	Balbinus	267 A.D. – 268 A.D.	Aurelous
238 A.D. – 244 A.D.	Gordian III	268 A.D.	Laelianus
The Gallic Empire
260 A.D. – 269 A.D.	Postumus	260 A.D. – 271 A.D.	Vaballathus
268 A.D.	Marius	275 A.D. – 276 A.D.	Tacitus
269 A.D. – 271 A.D.	Victorinus	276 A.D.	Florian
271 A.D. – 273 A.D.	Tetricus	276 A.D. – 282 A.D.	Probus
268/69 A.D. – 260 A.D.	Claudius II	280 A.D.	Saturninus
269 A.D. – 270 A.D.	Quintillus	282 A.D. – 283 A.D.	Julian I
269/70 A.D. – 275 A.D.	Aurelian	283 A.D. – 285 A.D.	Carinus (Caesar 282-83 A.D.)
270 A.D. – 275 A.D.	Domitian II	283 A.D. – 284 A.D.	Numerian
The Tetrarchy
284 A.D. – 305 A.D.	Diocletian	297 A.D.	Domitius Domitianus (In Egypt)
286 A.D. – 305 A.D.	Maximian	306 A.D. – 307 A.D.	Flavius Severus (Caesar 305-06 A.D.)
307 A.D. – 308 A.D.	Maximian	309 A.D. – 313 A.D.	Maximin Daia
293 A.D. – 305 A.D.	Constantius I (“Clorus”)	307/08 A.D.–308/12 A.D.	Maxentius
305 A.D. – 311 A.D.	Galerius (Caesar 293-305 A.D.)	308 A.D. – 310 A.D.	Alexander (In Africa)
287 A.D. – 293 A.D.	Carausius (In Britain and Gaul)	308 A.D. – 312 A.D.	Licinius
293 A.D. – 296 A.D.	Allectus (In Britain and Gaul)	316 A.D.	Valens
House of Constantius
305 A.D. – 306 A.D.	Constantius I	306 A.D. – 337 A.D.	Constantine (“the Great”)
http://www.britannia.com/history/resource/emperor.html

Many were appointed to rule small areas within the Empire.

Novatianists

The Novatianists were a small puritanical group who split off from the Church at Rome. Novatian, their founder, was defeated in the election for bishop in 251 A.D. and set up a rival congregation. The main point at issue between the factions in the election was how to treat those who had renounced Christ during the persecutions. Novatianists took a very legalistic view and refused to receive back anyone who had given way under persecution, claiming it would be pollution to the Church! Novatianists built congregations, calling themselves “Cathari” which means “pure ones.” Those who joined the Catharis had to be rebaptized, as if they were joining the only true church. Novatians refused to have fellowship with people who had been married more than once, and rejected the possibility of penance for any major sin committed after baptism.

For a Novatian, the Holy Spirit was the source of life and order for the Church. Healing, miracles, and tongues were accepted as normal for the Christian experiences. It was a vital part of their Christianity. [xiv] Novatians were treated as heretics until the time of Constantine. [xv]

Valentine, the overseer of Terni, was martyred in 269 A.D.  People still celebrate his feast-day on February 14th.

The Worst Persecution in Christian History

After the death of Decius the persecution subsided, Christians lived in peace for several years. With the new reign of Diocletian, the fate of the Christians changed dramatically.

While in the army, Diocletian sought his fame and fortune. He showed himself to be a shrewd and ambitious, prudent and methodical officer. He had found favor with the emperor and was promoted to Count of the Domestics, the commander of the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard. In 283 A.D. he was granted the honor of the position of a consulate. The emperor died and then his two sons were placed in office. One of the sons died mysteriously and the other was killed in battle. Diocletian was then acclaimed emperor in their place. Diocletian’s goal was to restore effective government and economic prosperity to the empire no matter how harsh the action. He changed the empire into a monarchy; those in his audience were required to prostrate themselves on the ground before him.

The Empire Split Into Four

Diocletian concluded that the empire was too large and complex to be ruled by only a single emperor. He wanted imperial presence throughout the empire, so he introduced the “Tetrarchy system,” which means “ rule by four.” He did not have Rome as its operational base and headquarters at this point of time, but strategically had capitals in four cities closer to the frontiers, mainly for the defense of the empire against bordering rivals – mainly Germanic and nomads at the Rhine and Danube Rivers. Rome continued to survive as a nominal, but non-operational.

In 285 A.D. Diocletian picked a lieutenant by the name of Maximianus. He was appointed his "Caesar" to assist in the ruling of the Roman Empire. Diocletian was the highest authority of Augustus, reigning in the Eastern Empire. Maximianus, as Caesar, was beneath Diocletian, ruling in the Western Empire. Both men claimed themselves as gods who should be worshipped by the people. Diocletian identified himself with the god Jupiter and Maximianus with the demi-god Hercules. In 286 A.D. Diocletian promoted Maximianus to the rank of Augustus, to co-reign the empire with him.

In 293 A.D. Diocletian appointed two new Caesars, Constantius, who was given authority over Gaul and Britain in the west, and Galerius who was given authority in the Balkans in the east. Both men, as Caesars, were second in command to Diocletian and Maximianus.

The Tetrarchy System – Order of Rank
Western Empire		Eastern Empire
Augustus	Maximianus	Augustus	Diocletian
Caesar	Constantius Chlorus	Caesar	Galerius

The four capital cities were:

• Nicomedia - Diocletian ruled from Nicomedia in northwestern Asia Minor (modern Turkey). This was a defense against the invasion from the Balkans and Persians.
• Sirmium (modern Serbia) - Galerius ruled from Sirmium (modern Serbia) on the Danube border.
• Milan (north of Rome) - Maximianus ruled from Milan, near the Alps. He also controlled Aquileia, a port on the Adriatic coast between Italy and Macadonia.
• Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier in Germany) Constantius Chlorus ruled over Augusta Treverorum along the Rhine border, having authority also over Gaul and Britain. Constantius also controled Eburacum (modern York in England near the Celtic tribes of modern Scotland and ireland)

By instituting his Tetrarchy system, Diocletian hoped to set up a system for choosing new emperors. Up to then, succession generally came to the eldest son of the emperor, a commander in the Roman army, or one who would fight to gain succession to the throne. According to Diocletian's system, the successor to each Augustus would be the Caesar under him, who, in turn, would name a new Caesar to replace him. With his system in place, the borders of his empire were strengthened Diocletian’s Tetrarchy system was able to defeat foreign enemies. Initially, it operated smoothly and effectively. [xvi]

End Notes 

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[i] Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. v. 1. HarperSanFrancisco. 1984.
[ii] Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. v. 1. HarperSanFrancisco. 1984.
[iii] Voss, Howard F. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publishers. 1994.
[iv] http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html [v] http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/tertullian.html
[vi] Irenaeus, Against Heresies, vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Christian Library, eds. Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson
[vii] Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. HarperSanFranscisco. v. 1.
[viii] Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. HarperSanFranscisco. v. 1.
[ix] Jones,, Timothy Paul. Christian History Made Easy. Rose Publishing. Torrance CA. 1999. [x] Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. HarperSanFranscisco. v. 1.
[xi] Jones, Timothy Paul. Christian History Made Easy. Rose Publishing. Torrance CA. 1999 [xii] Voss, Howard. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publishers. 1994.
[xiii] Jones, Timothy Paul. Christian History Made Easy. Rose Publishing. Torrance CA. 1999.
[xiv] Hyatt, Eddie L. 2000 Years of Charismatic Christianity. Hyatt International Ministries. 1996.
[xv] Dowley, Tim. Introduction to the History of Christianity. Fortress Press. Minneapolis. 1995.
[xvi] http://salve5.salve.edu/~romanemp/dioclet.htm