Church History
12th - 13th Century
Article X
The Crusades
Since the time of the 4th century – began by Empress Helena, mother of Emperor Constantine, people believed that by going on a “pilgrimage,” they could turn from their desire to urn from sin. This thought became crucial to one’s salvation. With the invasion of the Muslims, however, pilgrimages to Jerusalem had diminished greatly. In its stead, most Christians traveled to local shrines.
Muslims had control over Jerusalem since 638 A.D. and had gained much control over the Eastern territory. To those few who took pilgrimages to Jerusalem, they were charged vast tariffs to enter into the holy city. In 1095 A.D. Pope Urban II, under the reign of King and Emperor Henry IV, preached one of history’s most influential sermons. He urged the Western Christians to come to the aid of their Eastern brothers’. The pope wanted the rescue of the holy places away from the Muslims. His sermon was so powerful that the crowd cried out, “God wills it!” Thus began a campaign that would be both a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and a war against the Muslims. Pope Urban II named his personal representative to lead the crusade and others came from various points to meet up at different routes points to the East. They all agreed to gather together as a unit in Constantinople. The first crusade was underway.
The First Crusade (1095 – 1099 A.D.)
Christians had carried on crusades against the Moors in Spain and the Muslims in Sicily for some time before crusading to the Holy Land. The travel was long and arduous, but as these early crusaders approached Constantinople they were well received by Emperor Alexius of the Eastern Empire. Peter the Hermit, a dirty monk, had also joined them with a remnant of his ragged army which consisted of lords, knights, peasants, serfs and other ruffians who had been part of the feudal system.
The Rosary Beads
Peter the Hermit was the one responsible for introducing the rosary (or prayer beads) into the monasteries in the year 1090 A.D. Coming out of an old pagan practice copied from Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims , it began by monks in monasteries having 150 beads prayer chains to assist the illiterate people of that time to learn the Psalms. [1] Prayer beads of 150 beads were also used to recite the Lord’s Prayer. Roman Catholic tradition claims that the Virgin Mary came to St. Dominic in the 13th century instructing him to preach the Rosary among the people as a cure for heresy and sin. [2] By the 16th century, the beads were divided into three sections with adding praises to the Virgin Mary. [3]
With the help of the Byzantines, the Crusaders took the city of Nicea, which had been the capital of the Turks. They traveled on to Antioch where there they lay siege. They were about to run out of food, with many deserters when one of the men spoke up and said he had a vision. He claimed he saw the Holy Lance with which Christ’s side had been pierced, and it was laid buried in Antioch. Led by the seer, they dug where he told them. They found a spear! Convinced that this was the Holy Lance, the Crusaders were determined to continue their campaign. After five days of fasting and prayer, they came up against a larger Turkish army. Encouraged by the Holy Lance, they took the Turks with eager excitement, and the Turks turned around and ran. The Crusaders helped themselves to all the provisions that the Turks had left behind.
Finally on June 15, 1099 A.D. they captured Jerusalem. Many of the Crusaders had been feudal lords back in Europe and knew little about Christianity. They fought the war of the Crusades with savagery unknown to the Church. In a horrible bloodbath, both Turks and Crusaders were killed. Women were raped and infants thrown against walls by the hands of the Crusaders. Many of the city’s Jews took refuge in the synagogue. Crusaders set fire to the building with many Jews locked inside. [4] Because many of the Crusaders were once feudal lords, they saw the liberation of Jerusalem as a means of creating and running new feudal states like they had done in Europe. Any captured victims were taken as prisoners and became slaves and serfs in the newly set up feudal manors surrounding Jerusalem. These manors made up the “Kingdom of Jerusalem.” This Crusade was a success in the fact that Jerusalem was taken from the Turks and put back into the hands of the Church.
Lillie, Amy Morris. I Will Build My Church. Westminster Press. Philadelphia. 1950
The Knights Templar and Hospitallers were used as guards of the “Kingdom of Jerusalem” against the Moslemic Turks. They also organized ways of protection against the Turks to any Christian pilgrims who came to Jerusalem. [5]
The Knights Templar and Hospitallers
Cairns, Earle E. ChristianityThrough the Centuries. 3rd ed. Zondervan. 1996.
The Second Crusade (1147 A.D.)
For almost fifty years Jerualem lay guarded by the Knights Templar and Hospitallars. Christians were able to make their pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Threats of Muslim invasion were on the northern borders of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and it gave great concern to the Crusaders. The feudal man or Edessa had already been captured by the Muslims. Another crusade was planned and led by the king of France and the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. It was, however, unsuccessful and left Jerusalem in greater danger than before. The crusade came to a halt. [6] Eventually, Jerusalem was conquered by Moslim leader, Saladin of Egypt.
The Third Crusade (1189 – 1192 A.D.)
The third Crusade was known as the King’s Crusade, and failed to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin. A treaty was signed with Saladin in which Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control; however, unarmed Christian pilgrims were allowed access to visit Jerusalem. [7]
The Fourth Crusade (1202 – 1204 A.D.)
The failed attempt of the Third Crusade led to the Fourth Crusade six years later. This Crusade, called by Pope Innocent II, was originally designed to conquer Egypt. Instead, the Crusaders were rerouted and conquered Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. After the failure of the Third Crusade, there was little interest in Europe for another crusade against the Muslims. [8]
The Children's Crusade (1212 A.D.)
A young man named Stephen from France thought he had seen a vision of Christ telling him that the children could do what the older people could not. In the year 1212 A.D., without swords, going in the power of Christ, boys and girls left their homes to join others who were gathered in towns and villages to crusade to Jerusalem.
Masses of French children marched south toward Marseilles, while thousands of children marched toward the snowy peaks of the Swiss Alps. Many were lost in the forest or on the icy peaks in the mountains. Those who followed Stephen as far as the shores of the Mediterranean Sea were sold as slaves to Egypt. [9] As many as 20,000 children died from exposure, starvation, kidnapping, murder, or sold into slavery or prostitution in this crusade.
Some historians have speculated that the entire Children’s Crusade was fictional, as there is no historical evidence that any such event occurred. That is most certainly possible. [10]
The Fifth Crusade (1217 – 1221 A.D.)
In 1187 A.D. the walls and fortifications were demolished by Muslim leader Saladin of Egypt to prevent the Christians from being able to defend the city should they should reach it and take over. Palestinian Muslims fled the city since they were afraid that the bloodbath of the First Crusade would happen again. [11] This led to the Fifth Crusade.
The Fifth Crusade was an attempt to take back Jerusalem away from Saladin of Egypt. It would be fought on Egyptian soil. Pope Innocent III issued a “bull” calling all Christians to join a new crusade. He ordered processions, prayers, and preaching to help organize it. The pope wanted this crusade to be under the full control of the papacy similar to the First Crusade. Enticements of indulgences were offered to all who would become a Crusader. He also offered the same to those who would help pay the expenses of a crusade, even though they did not participate.
Indulgences
The cancellation of all temporal punishment Christians owed to God (through the Church) because of sin. It freed them from having to perform acts of penance that the Church required to show sorrow for certain sins.
Pope Innocent III died, but other attempts were made to continue the crusade; however, after three years in Egypt, efforts failed to bring any victory.
The Sixth Crusade (1228 – 1229 A.D.)
This crusade began as an attempt to reconquer Jerusalem. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II attempted to join the Fifth Crusade, but Pope Innocent III prevented him from participating, fearing that Frederick would undermine papal authority. After Pope Innocent II died, Frederick sent a small army to help the crusade.
In 1225 Frederick married the daughter of the king of Jerusalem. Frederick now had a claim to the defunct kingdom and an excuse to attempt to restore it. In return, Frederick was excommunicated by the pope for breaking his crusader vows. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III attempted to negotiate with the pope, but eventually decided to ignore him.
The Knights Hospitaller and Templar resented Frederick’s attempt to impose imperial authority on them. In 1229 A.D., Frederick signed a ten-year truce granting him Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem. Frederick, however, was not permitted to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem that were destroyed, but was allowed to enter the city as king. Frederick crowned himself king on March 18, 1229 A.D. He became known as the liberator of Jerusalem.
The pope eventually lifted the excommunication, but by now Emperor Frederick had shown that a crusade could be successful with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy. Frederick had set the precedent for future crusades to be launched by individual kings without papal involvement. [12]
The Seventh and Eight Crusades
Both of these crusades were led by Louis IX of France. They were major disasters. The king was captured by the Muslims in the Seventh Crusade and force to pay a large ransom. In the Eighth Crusade, he died of fever. By the year 1270 A.D., the crusades had run their course. [13]
The First Inquisition
One of the strengths of the medieval papacy in maintaining its power over the populace of Western Europe was the Inquisition. It developed itself over a couple of centuries, but came to its formulation under Pope Gregory IX (1227 – 1241 A.D.).
Generally the Dominican or Franciscan friars from monasteries were in charge of Inquisitorial activities. For the accused, there was no way of obtaining meaningful legal defense, because any lawyer representing an accused person would himself become the target of the Church tribunals. Done in secret, confessions were extracted by torture, and testimonies against the accused were obtained from witnesses by the same means. Those who confessed and were reconciled back to the Church were subjected to various punishments, including penances, pilgrimages, scourgings, or fines. Those who refused to recant had their property confiscated, were imprisoned, or handed over to the secular authorities to be executed - usually by burning.
In 1232 A.D. the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II, issued an edict assigning the apprehension of heretics to state officials. The reason was to call before the Roman Catholic Tribunals suspects of heresy in order to secure their repentance and keep the faithful Catholics in line. It was not meant to convert any Jew or Muslim. The papacy deemed this necessary because of the spread of religious monastic groups that threatened the papacy.
Scholasticism
The European society stabilized by the late 1100’s. Spiritually, there were merchants, mendicants and mystics who emphasized practical experiences in their search for God.
Mendicants
Someone who lives by asking people they do not know for money, especially for religious reasons
http://www.freesearch.co.uk/dictionary/mendicants
To counteract the spread of practical experiences in search for God, there were migrant scholars in that day who traveled from town to town urging people to question their spiritual experiences in the light of reason. These new thinkers were called Scholastics, which brought on a new move called Scholasticism. It derived its name from the medieval monasteries and cathedral schools.
Scholasticm
Constitutes the sum of the teachings and methods of the prominent Western philosophers most widely accepted during the Middle Ages. It constituted a harmonization of philosophy and theology in one system for the purpose of rational demonstration of theological truth. The Scholastics sought certainty and better understanding of the truth and salvation by way of knowledge and reason.
During the 12th century Scholasticism escalated. Many dogmas (man-made tradition within a church) became solidified within the Roman Catholic Church because of Scholasticism, such as: transubstantiation, which is the belief of the bread and wine actually turning into the body and blood of Christ, annual confession to a priest, additional formulations of seven sacraments, such as the Eucharist, confirmation, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and marriage. Many of these traditions had already been practiced within the Church for centuries, it was the Scholastics who promoted these dogmas as doctrine. [14]
Since all of education was in the hands of the Church, and the great thinkers were all monks and clergy, this gave rise to common people asking their own questions.
Christian Leaders During the Medieval Period
Monasticism was the backbone of the medieval papacy. The list of leaders of the Middle Ages who came from monasteries, or in some way associated with them is long and extensive. Monasteries were the conservatories of learning and the centers of missionary and philanthropic work. The monks were writers, preachers, philosophers, and theologians of their age. They headed the Inquisition and persuaded multitudes to participate in the Crusades. Such pre-reformation revivalists of the later centuries would come out of monasticism. [15] There were even religious monastic groups that opposed the papacy. One such leader was Peter Waldo.
Peter Waldo
Peter Waldo was a rich merchant of Lyons, France, who wanted to advance true Christianity with biblical knowledge. Giving away his wealth, Peter shunned the luxurious lifestyle of the Church and advocated simplicity of life and adherence to biblical teachings. He formed a lay ministry of evangelists composed of propertyless and celibate men. They were known as “The Poor men of Lyons.”
Papal rule stated that laymen were not allowed to preach during the Medieval Period. Only under special circumstances or permission could a lay person preach. The papacy claimed that they were the only ones who were able to understand the Scriptures. Peter Waldo applied for special permission and was denied. He was a threat to the papacy because of his disagreements with certain doctrines of the Church. That didn’t stop Waldo, however; he continued to preach. In 1184 A.D. Pope Lucius III excommunicated Waldo and his followers for their disobedience.
Waldo and his followers traveled around two by two, wearing simple clothing, preaching repentance, engaging in frequent fasting, and living from the gifts of others. They rejected any thought of the Catholic doctrine of purgatory, masses, and prayers for the dead. They held, however, to the necessity of using a vulgate (common language of the people) Bible to find its meaning. [16] Because of that, Waldo produced the first translation of the four Gospels into modern French. [17]
Waldenese’ recognized the responsibility of both men and women to preach, to baptize, and to administer the Lord’s Supper. For them the basis of ministry was the anointing or gifting of the Spirit rather than institutional appointment or ordination. [18] For that, they were severely persecuted. His ministry was a pre-cursor to the Reformation.
Francis of Assisi
Francis, like Waldo, belonged to the merchant class carrying the name of Giovanni. Also like Waldo, Francis had a deep religious experience that led him to embrace a life of poverty. He had no intentions, however, to defy the papacy. Francis gave all he had to the poor. He gave up his inheritance to live a life of a hermit. He read in the Scriptures that Jesus sent his disciples to preach, taking with them no gold or silver. He then preached poverty as a way of life for Christians. He later traveled back to his hometown of Assisi. Although he did gather a following, he faced insults from his former friends. [19]
Wanting permission to start a new monastic order, he and his followers traveled to Rome to ask authorization from the pope. The pope was Innocent III who granted his request. Francis returned to Assisi to continue begin his monastery, now having papal approval. People began to flock to his new Franciscan order. A spiritual sister of Francis names Clare also founded a sister order for women.
The origin of the manger scene at Christmas time
Christmas is a time when the works of Francis of Assisi come to remembrance. He is the one responsible for the manger scene that had become so traditional within Christiandom. To soften the hearts of the nearby people, Brother Francis wanted to show the birth of Jesus as though it were happening before their eyes. In a cave, on the side of a hill, Brother Francis and his followers built a manger and filled it with hay. Then he and his brothers of the order brought a live ox and ass and tied them near the manger. Finally a living baby was laid down.
When people crowded inside the cave, they gazed in surprise and then dropped to their knees, for it brought back remembrance of how God sent his Son to earth in just such a humble place, and His unending love for His people. [20]
Lillie, Amy. I Will Build My Church. Westminster Press. 1950
Brother Francis, as he referred to himself, had a love for all small creatures, and often answered bird calls with a soft whistle that would bring the birds to perch on his shoulder.
Thomas Aquinas
Born around 1227 A.D. in Naples, Italy, Thomas Aquinas came from royalty. His family was related to the Emperors Henry VI and Frederick II, the Kings of Aragon. It was prophesied that he would enter into the Order of Friars Preachers before he was born. At the age of five, he was sent to receive his first training from the Benedictine monks. Around the age of 10 he was sent to the University of Naples. He was a young man of many talents, being trained in logic, rhetoric, music, mathematics, geometry, astronomy and the natural sciences.
Universities as a center for teaching and research developed about 1200 A.D. By 1400 A.D. there were over 75 European universities. In these schools, Scholastic studies formed a large part of the curriculum. All universities were in the hands of the Church, having their beginnings during this period of time.
Thomas, however, still chose to embrace the religious life. He left the university to join the Order of St. Dominic. For fear of having his mother remove him, he was sent to Paris. He was captured there by his family and confined in the fortress of San Giovanni for nearly two years. His family tried to change his desire toward religion. Finally, h e was released to join the Dominicans friars. Thomas immediately announced his vows and was sent to Rome to join the Friars Preachers. After that he went to Paris and studied under the most well-known professors of the order. Thomas obtained a doctorate degree in Theology from the University of Paris.
Thomas frequently preached the Scriptures in Germany, France, and Italy. His sermons were forceful and powerful and filled with Catholic doctrine. Several popes wanted him nearby to enjoy the benefits of his teaching. He, like the Scholastics before him promoted the seven dogma sacraments as doctrine within the Church. His writings were influenced by Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. Thomas was a philosopher, theologian, and a doctor of the Church, universities and colleges. He has been considered by many the greatest scholastic theologian of the Middle Ages. [21] Because of his large size, seriousness, and methodical slowness, Thomas Aquinas was often dubbed “Dumb Ox.” He died in 1274 A.D. [22]
Artistic Church Architecture
The most important area of artistic achievement during the Middle Ages were the churches (or cathedrals) and the sculptures and paintings associated with them.
Cologne Cathedral - the largest church in Germany
Cairnes, Earle, E. Christianity Through the Centuries. 3rd ed. Zondervan. 1996
Two building styles were dominate during this period – the Romanesque and the Gothic. Romanesque being the first, followed by the Gothics.
The difference between a church and cathedral is: A cathedral had to provide a bishop and his household of priests to celebrate the mass and sing the daily services, whereas a church held the priest. A cathedral was not only used for religious purposes, as it was the largest building in the town, so it became a natural meeting place for social activities and trade. [23]
Mysticism
Mysticism was contemporary with the Scholastic movement, aiming at a certainty of salvation and centered on “truth” through spiritual experience, whereas Scholasticism centered on knowledge. Mysticism existence has been around in various forms and in various degrees in the Church from New Testament times to the present. It can also be found in other world religions as well. It surfaced, however, heavy in the Middle Ages when religion had become too institutionalized and individuals were seeking a personal relationship with God. Where Scholasticism had become too academic, mystics centered on the supernatural. Both, however, were off balance.
Many tims mysticism led to heresy, as adherents ignored biblical norms in favor of experience as they concentrated on the supernatural. Some of the more known medieval mystics were Bernard of Clairvaux, who was a leader in the Second Crusade, as well as Hildegard of Bingen.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098 – 1179 A.D.)
Hildegard was the 10th child in a noble family. As was customary with the tenth child at that period of time in history, he or she was dedicated at birth as a tithe to the Church.
This practice was taken after the Old Testament requirement of the Levite having to tithe a tenth of the tithes that were brought in and give it to the priests.
It was also viewed that the 10th child made the family so poor to where they could not feed that child.
Hildegard was a sickly child, prone to migraine headaches. She started to have visions of luminous objects at the age of three, but hid this gift for many years. At age eight, her family sent her to her aunt who had recently become an anchoress in a Benedictine convent. Hildegard was to be given a religious education.
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Anchorites |
Hildegard had more freedom than the typical anchorite. Her cell had one extra door, one in which she and other novices entered. She cared for her anchoress’ needs, and in the process shared her visions with her. Lacking an education, Hildegard was taught by her anchoress to read the Psalms in Latin. By the time she was fifteen, she took the veil as an nun. [24] When she was 38 years of age, her anchoress died. Hildegard was then elected the head of the convent where she took up residency within her own cramped walls of the anchorage.
In 1141 A.D., around the age of 42, while living a reclusive life in her cell, Hildegard had a vision “supposedly” from God that changed the course of her life. This vision gave her instant inner understanding of the meaning of the religious texts she read. Hildegard wanted her visions to be sanctioned and approved by the Catholic Church, so she wrote to her bishop and he, in turn, brought it to the attention of the pope. The papacy told her that her visions came from God. It must be noted that at that particular time the papacy was held by secular popes who knew little of God, other than as a religious order. They exhorted Hildegard to finish her writings. Her fame spread through Germany and beyond.
Around 1150 A.D. Hildegard moved her growing convent to Bingen on the banks of the Rhine. She later founded another convent across the river as well. Many, as far away as Sweden, came to Hildegard seeking healing. She had no formula but relied on what she claimed was the inner leading of the Holy Spirit for the unique solution to each case. Sometimes it was prayer, other times it was a simple command, or the use of water. Nearly everyone who came to her was healed. She was known to speak and sang in tongues. [25] It must be noted that Hildegard did not have the Holy Scriptures to compare her experiences in prayer.
Prayer and the Word of God must always balance together
Hildegard also created many writings on natural history, derived from ancient Greek cosmology. Hildegard used the curative powers of natural objects for healing, and wrote treatises about natural history and medicinal uses of plants, animals, trees and stones. When it came to the natural elements of humans, she was very graphic in her writings. She wrote on her theology of microcosms and macrocosms which she received in her visions. [26]
Hildegard of Bingen wrote at a time when women were not recognized. She produced major works of theology and visionary writings. She was accorded respect, consulted by bishops, popes, and kings. [27]
Hildegard suffered from migraine all of her life, and some have suggested that her visions were a result of this condition. How she described her visions were classic symptoms of migraine sufferers. Migraine attacks are usually followed by sickness, paralysis, and blindness, which were all reported by Hildegard. When they passed, a feeling of euphoria came. Hildegard also subscribed to that happening to her.
Her remaining years were very productive. As music was important to her, she wrote hymns in honor of saints, virgins, and Mary. She wrote plainchant which were common in liturgical singing at that time. Her music has carried down through the centuries. Today, her music is commonplace within the New Age Movement.
End Notes
[1] Dake, Finis Jennings. God’s Plan for Man. Dake Publishing 1977.
[2] http://www.catholicdoors.com/homilies/2002/021007.htm
[3] http://stmaryqueenofcreation.org/rosary.html
[4] Gonzalez’, Justo L. The History of Christianity. Vol. 1. HarperSanFrancisco. 1984.
[5] Cairns, Earle E. ChristianityThrough the Centuries. 3rd ed. Zondervan. 1996.
[6] Voss, Howard F. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publishers. Nashville. 1996.
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Crusade
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Crusade
[9] Lillie, Amy. I Will Build My Church. Westminster Press. 1950.
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Crusade
[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Crusade
[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children's_Crusade
[13] Gonzalez’, Justo L. The History of Christianity. Vol. 1. HarperSanFrancisco. 1984.
[14] Vos, Howard F. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publishers. Nashville. 1996.
[15] Vos, Howard F. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publishers. Nashville. 1996.
[16] Vos, Howard F. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publishers. Nashville. 1996
[17] http://www.revelation-today.com/Waldo1.jpg
[18] Hyatt, Eddie L. 2000 Years of Charismatic Christianity. Hyatt Int’l Ministries. 1996
[19] Gonzalez’, Justo L. The History of Christianity. Vol. 1. HarperSanFrancisco. 1984.
[20] Lillie, Amy. I Will Build My Church. Westminster Press. 1950.
[21] Dowley, Tim. Introduction to the History of Christianity. Fortress Press. 1995
[22] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm
[23] Dowley, Tim. Introduction to the History of Christianity. Fortress Press. 1995
[24] http://mw.mcmaster.ca/sitemap.html
[25] Hyatt, Eddie L. 2000 Years of Charismatic Christianity. Hyatt Int’l Ministries. 1996
[26] http://mw.mcmaster.ca/sitemap.html
[27] h ttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/hildegarde.html
