Church History
The 15-16th Centuries
The High Renaissance to the Reformation
Article XII
Purgatory feared by the people
The belief in purgatory had long become part of the Roman Catholic Church. To most medieval Christians, purgatory was so fearsome, it seemed almost as bad as spending an eternity in hell. The Roman Church taught that a sinner could escape hell by sincere repentance; however, God’s judgment was not all one had to worry about. The Church had its penalties as well. Unless the sinner carried out those penalties, which were penance, he automatically had to go through the pains of purgatory. As a result of the Church’s indoctrination, most Christians expected to spend some time in purgatory.
Belief in witches
Medieval people believed the world was evil because it contained evil spirits, such as witches who were thought to be agents of the devil. The people believed they could be controlled by magic and were used by witches for their wicked purposes. These witches could cause hail, make crops fail, turn healthy children into invalids, along with many other superstitions. Witches flew on broomsticks and worshipped the devil. [1]
Praying to the deceased saints
Admiration for the heroes of the Christian faith was embroidered with legend and superstition. For many people, the saints had become special deities, almost like gods. The Virgin Mary was the most popular. People went to her in prayer, believing Jesus was a righteous judge and they knew they were destined for purgatory to suffer. Therefore, they believed, that by praying to Mary, Jesus’ mother, now known as the queen of heaven (mother of God), was called upon to intercede on behalf of them to escape. They thought of her as a great wonder-worker and called on her to save them in all kinds of difficulties. Merchants prayed to various saints for riches and gamblers prayed to them for good luck. Such known saints were St. Apollonia who healed toothaches and St. Agatha could prevent earthquakes.
Collecting and selling of relics of the saints, of Christ, and of the apostles became big business. Most, or all, was fraudulent. The machinery of the Roman Catholic Church had become so complicated and the people were caught in a helpless web. A reformation was most definitely needed.
The Spanish Inquisition 
Spain had become a nation-state, but was born out of religious struggles betw een different belief systems, which included Catholicism, Islam, Judaism, and later Protestantism. Following the Crusades and the reconquest of Spain, by the Christian Spaniards, the leaders of Spain needed a way to unify the country into a strong nation. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 A.D. provided that tool. They chose Roman Catholicism to use as a means for unification. In 1478 A.D. they asked permission of the pope to begin a “Spanish Inquisition” in order to purify the people of Spain. To do so, those specific leaders of the Church brought in those who "they believed" were heretics. In addition, they believed there was no room in Spain for anyone who was not part of the Roman Catholic Church. As a result, they began forcing Jews and other "non-believers" out of Spain.
By 1483 A.D., Tomas de Torquemada became the inquisitor-general for most of Spain. He established local tribunals for the Inquisition. Accused heretics were brought before the tribunal and given a chance to confess their heresy against the Roman Catholic Church. Once accused, however, it was an automatic guilty sentence. In addition, the accused were commanded to indict other who they thought could be heretics. If the tortured admitted to their heresy and turned in other people who supposedly were heretics against the Roman Catholic Church, the accused were either released or sentenced to a prison penalty. If one insisted on their innocence, or in any way refused to recant (publicly confess) of their heresy or indict others of heresy, they were publicly killed or sentenced to life in prison.
Over 12,500 people were killed by the Spanish Inquisition by the time it was suppressed. When the Catholic Church and the papacy attempted to intervene, they were unable to break through the politics of the hands of the Spanish rulers. As such, the Spanish Inquisition continued through the Reformation Period and finally suppressed in 1834 A.D. [2]
Erasmus – the biblical humanist
In 1466 A.D. in Rotterdam, the Netherland, Desiderius Erasmus was born under the name of Geert Geertsen. Even though he was born out of wedlock, both of his parents lovingly reared him. At a young age, however, both of his parents died of the plague that had swept across Europe. He was then given to his uncle who put him in a monastery to live the monastic life and receive a scholarly education. As a result, he took his monastic vows with the Brethren of the Common Life; however, it became obvious to those around him that he was not meant to be a priest. As time continued, Erasmus, through the help of his monastery, was offered the post of secretary to the Bishop of Cambray. Because Erasmus was in poor heathat the time, the pope granted him a temporary leave. That temporary leave turned into a permanent one because he "apparently" was still in poor health, he has a real distaste for the lifestyle of monks and he loved the humanistic studies. It was obvious he did not belong in monastic life. After his release, Erasmus was then free to move around as he pleased.
Erasmus went to the University of Paris, which was the chief seat of scholastic learning. He was intrigued by the revived classic culture of Italy that was brought on by the Renaissance. Having a desire to write with free expression, Erasmus became an independent scholar and never carried any academic ties or religious allegiance. That way he was free to write as he wished. His travels took his to Paris, Louvain, England, and Basel. He mainly resided, however, in England. While there he briefly held an honorable position to Lady Margaret as professor of Divinity at Queen’s College in Cambridge. Throughout his lifetime Erasmus was offered many positions of honor in the academic world, but declined them all preferring the life of independent literary.
Erasmus was a scholar in the humanities and theology, but never wanted to be referred as a theologian. He always claimed himself to be a scholar and a humanist. He was a man who loved the Lord, the Scriptures and truth. His writings demonstrated his love as he wrote extensively on truth and Christian living. In his quest to get truth into the hands of the people, he wrote against the traditional doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, even though he was a Catholic himself. He claimed that the chief evil of the day was formalism, tradition, and fear of what other people may think.
Erasmus was a man given to oral satires. Often he would give orators in the presence of popes and bishops. In all his criticism of clerical follies and abuses, he was always carefully to not personally attack the institution of the Church (meaning the Roman Catholic Church which was the only Christian church at that time) and stated he had no enmity toward any churchmen. He displayed his skill in twisting words and phrases to suit the purpose of the moment. While the world laughed at his satires, he was serious as he was able to express his thoughts and opinions.
Since the 5th century (the past 1000 years), the Roman Catholic Church had been using the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible. Translated by the early Church Father Jerome, his work was criticized by Erasmus as being filled with errors, stating he had used unreliable Greek manuscripts as support. In 1516 A.D., Erasmus translated and published a fresh rendering of the biblical text from more accurate and reliable Greek manuscripts. His Greek- Latin Parallel version of the New Testament became his best work. Erasmus stressed the importance of going back to the original Greek (New Testament) and Hebrew (Old Testament) to maintain the greatest accuracy of the original writer. Erasmus’ translation was not only the first Bible to come off of the printing press, it was the first non-Latin Vulgate text of the Scriptures to be published in 1000 years. His edition became the basis of most of the scientific study of the Bible during the Reformation period. It was the primary source-text for Martin Luther to translate the New Testament into German in 1522 A.D. and William Tyndale into English in 1526 A.D. The Greek text produced by Erasmus is known as “textus receptus” and was also the basis for the King James Version of the New Testament.
Erasmus was considered a scholar and humanist in an age when the papacy was at its worst. He attacked the traditions of the Roman Catholic Church, often showing disloyalty; however, the papacy was still desirous to holding on to the services of Erasmus. Erasmus often corresponded favorably with Martin Luther. He did, however, declined to cast lots with the Lutheran party or the Reformation that was leaping on the horizon. Erasmus’ argument was that to do so would endanger his position as a leader in the movement for pure scholarship which he regarded as his real work in life. Only through his position as an independent scholar could Erasmus hope to influence the reform of religion. When he was charged with siding with Luther, claiming he "laid the egg that Luther hatched" Erasmus half admitted the truth of the charge, but stated “he had expected quite another kind of a bird!” His provision to Luther's work was primarily to furnish a new doctrinal basis for the previously scattered attempts at reform.
When Erasmus found himself at the close of his life at odds with both sides, his last years were embittered by controversies with men toward whom he was drawn by many ties. Those waning years he found it easier to maintain his neutrality under Roman Catholicism than under Protestant conditions. In spite of that, he died in the midst of the group of Protestant scholars, who had long been his truest friends in 1536 A.D. [3]
The Dawn of the Reformation
The changes that brought on the Refomation
Geographical changes
Between 1492 and 1600 A.D., the geographical expansion of the medieval person underwent remarkable changes. The discoveries of Columbus and other explorers ushered in an era of oceanic civilization in which the oceans of the world had became the highways of the world. By 1522 A.D. Magellan’s ship had completed a voyage around the world.
In addition, the Western Hemisphere was open to the changes in the political, economic, social, intellectual and religious atmosphere of Old Europe. [4]
Political changes
The medieval concept of a “one empire” was gone, giving way to the new concept of the territorial, nation-states. These centralized nation-states with powerful ruler were nationalistic and were opposed to domination by an empiric rule or universal religious ruler. This gave root to the Reformation on the horizon.
Economic changes
During medieval time the economy of the countries of Europe was primarily agricultural, with the land providing its basis of wealth. By 1500 A.D., however, the age of commerce had emerged, and the middle-class merchants replaced the medieval feudal nobles as leaders in society. Towns rose up, new markets opened, and discoveries of raw materials gave rise to a new society. Trade spread beyond its national borders to become more international rather than interurban. Resentment set in, however, with the rising capitalistic middle class that the drain of their wealth went to the Roman Catholic Church under the leadership of the pope in Rome. As such, those in northern Europe threw their influence behind the rising Reformation of the Church.” [5]
Social changes
As serfdom and peasantry disappeared, people rose as prominent to become new urban middle-class society, ending the “class” society. It was the middle class who were the ones who supported the changes made by the Reformation which was sweeping across Europe.
Intellectual changes
The intellectual changes of the Renaissance created an outlook that favored the development of the Reformation of the Church. The desire for truth brought the Christian humanist of the north to a study of the Bible in the original tongues of the Scriptures. The Renaissances’ emphasis on the individual was also a helpful factor in the re-development of the biblical belief that salvation was a personal matter to be settled by the individual in relationship with his God without a priest standing by as a human mediator. The critical spirit of the Renaissance by reformers brought down the religious hierarchy and sacraments of the medieval Roman Church as they made comparisons of them with the Scriptures. Although the Renaissance, which began in Italy, the tendencies that it fostered were taken over in northern Europe by the Christian humanists and the Reformers. Individual study of the Bible became acceptable as certain scholars spent time searching the original languages of ancient Scripture as the source document of the Christian faith.
Religious changes
The Dawn of the Reformation was emerging out of an old medieval society. The old universal structure within the Roman Catholic, with its corporate, hierarchical, sacramental structure, and was divided by schisms, and open for change. By the 16th century, enough diversity arose which was about to change the scene of religion throughout Europe.
The unwillingness of the Roman Catholic Church to accept reforms by sincere reformers such as Wycliff, Hus and Erasmus, along with the emergence of nation-states which opposed the papal claim to have universal power, the rise of the middle class, which disliked the drain of wealth to Rome caused a reformation to become a reality. A new society was ready to surface. [6]
Martin Luther
Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483 in Eisleben, Germany to Hans and Margaretta (Luder) Luther. His mother and father were strong disciplinarians, often whipping their son several times a day. As such, young Luther was prone to depression. It was believed that man must work out his salvation in a somber, terrifying, and dangerous world filled with elves, gnomes, witches, and spirits.
[7]Hans Luther moved to Mansfeld to make a better living in the copper mines. At the age of 13 young Martin began life at a boarding school called Brethren of the Common Life. By age 17, he moved to Erfurt and began studying liberal arts at the University of Erfurt. At the age of 18, he went to Wittenberg University. After earning his baccalaureate degree, he began studying for his Masters degree, being only 21 when he completed it. His father arranged for his entry into law school at the University of Erfurt, which at that time was one of Germany’s most important scholarly institutions. [8] It was there that he taught philosophy and began his studies by memorizing the titles of laws. [9]
One day while traveling back to Erfurt from his parents’ home, Luther was caught in a bad thunderstorm. Nearly struck by lightning, he was thrown to the ground. The fear of death brought him to make a vow to God to become a monk if he would be saved. Because he was protected, in fulfillment of his vow, Luther entered the Black Monastery in Erfurt against his parent’s wishes. It was there that Luther took his monastic vows in the Augustinian Hermits, an order of mendicant monks. [10] It was there that Luther sought for peace for his soul that all his life he could not find. He saw Christ as a stern judge, and he spent days in fasts and bodily mortification, seeking release for his sinful soul.
It was during that time at the Black Monastery that Luther met Johann Von Staupitz, vicar-general of his order. He urged Luther to think on God’s love for the sinner as evidence in Christ’s death. Luther began to study the Bible that he was given on entrance into the monastery. [11] Later he was ordained as a deacon, and later to the priesthood. When Staupitz became the dean of the faculty of theology at the newly founded University of Wittenberg in Saxony, he arranged for Luther to join the faculty in 1508 A.D. as a visiting professor for a year. After that year was completed, Luther returned back to the monastery in Erfurt. There he kept the rules of the order, keeping vigils, prayers, readings, and other work. His salvation certainties, however, continued to plague him. Often he was plunged into torment and despair, always feeling he could not do enough for God. [12]
Indulgences
During the 15th century the pope announced that people could win generous pardons from purgatory by seeing relics. These “supposedly” relic articles were displayed for people to pay to see.
Indulgences
A document stating one was free from the temporal penalties of sin,
thus escaping purgatory and going directly to heaven after death.
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A Few of the Relics of the 15th Century | |
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· A thorn from Jesus’ crown |
· A strand from Jesus’ beard |
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· A piece of Jesus’ swaddling cloth |
· 19,000 relic bones of martyrs |
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· Some hair of the Virgin Mary |
· A twig of Moses’ burning bush |
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· Chains of St. Paul |
· Two pieces of the five loaves of bread |
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· A coin paid to Judas |
· Table used for the Last Supper |
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· A nail from the cross of Jesus |
· The rope with which Judas hanged himself |
It was believed that pious people who viewed these relics on All Saints Day (November 1st) and paid the price, received indulgences of a reduced sentence in purgatory by 1,902,202 years and 270 days. [13]
In 1510 A.D., at the age of 26, Martin Luther traveled to Rome for six months on monastery business for the Augustinian order. Ruins of ancient Rome were to be found in the center of Christendom for the Western Empire. Luther saw many sacred shrines, relics of all fashion, and he saw a chance to help out by purchasing indulgences. He saw one vault where the remains of 40 popes and thousands of martyrs were buried. He saw hundred of old relics, such as listed above. He was told that many thousands of years of indulgence could be granted by just looking at those objects. [14] Famous among the relics was the stairway of Pilate’s palace in which Jesus was supposed forced to have climbed. For climbing these stairs on hands and knees and saying a prayer on each step, it was possible, the Roman Catholic Church claimed, for the pilgrim to release some tormented soul from purgatory. Of course, in order to view or take part in any of these indulgences, it came with a price. Luther chose to purchase this benefit for his grandfather, Heine Luder. Yet, as he reached the top, the haunting doubt returned. “Is this true?” [15]
As Luther spent time in Rome he became disillusioned by the gaiety, lack of reverence, unbelief, and immorality of the Italian priests. He was disturbed by doubts about whether his good works really were a way of salvation. When he returned to the monastery, he was directed by Staupitz to begin to study for his doctorate and the position of preacher and teacher.
In 1513 A.D. the light broke through to Luther’s bleak misery. He was preparing lectures on the Psalms and Romans when the word “righteousness” became alive on the inside of him. As he read Romans 1:17, the Spirit of God moved upon his spirit.
Rom 1:16 Rom 1:17 For therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, The just shall live by faith.
Luther realized that the righteousness of God is not the righteousness he himself possessed, but the righteousness God gives. It is the act of forgiveness through which sinners are treated as though they were righteous. “Justification by faith” was the answer to a lifetime of fear and doubt and a promise of eternity in heaven. [16]
Luther’s newly found peace began to show up in his lectures and preaching. During these quiet years from 1513 to 1517 A.D. Luther wrote and preached from his discoveries from Scripture. His approach to the Scriptures had a freshness which contrasted with the teachings of Catholicism. Students by the hundreds flocked around Luther as he gave anointed messages from the Word of God. Within four years he was the leading professor at Wittenberg, and had won every member of the faculty to his views.
Luther also continued as a monk while teaching at the university. By 1515 A.D., his influence expanded as he was given charge over eleven monasteries. That same year the town council of Wittenberg called him to the pulpit of the City Church, which he was then able to carry his views directly to the people.
The sale of indulgences grew strong
Looking back at indulgences offered by the pope during the times of the early crusades, indulgences were offered to a person if they went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The indulgence would give them the right to go directly to heaven instead of going to purgatory to pay for their sins after death. Through the process of time, however, the Roman Catholic Church changed the conditions and payments. People were now able to purchase indulgences, and it no longer brought one directly to heaven, but only bought them a portion of time out of purgatory, unless one spent more on a plenary (meaning complete) indulgence. It came, however, with a higher cost. One could also purchase indulgences for a relative or friend. People were naturally afraid of purgatory and that fear became a measure of control and extortion from the Church over the people. Sadly, the use of buying indulgences became popular when one could afford to pay.
The sale of indulgences proved to be a fabulous money maker. The papacy was in need of repair and the Roman Catholic Church wanted to expand the Vatican – in particular, the building of St. Peter’s Cathedral. In the fall of 1517 A.D. a Dominican monk and vigorous indulgence seller named John Tetzel came peddling his wares with an agreement of a 50/50 split with the papacy. He came with a “Plenary” (which meant complete) indulgence. In that, selling of indulgences was the promise of forgiveness of all sins and freedom from all pain of purgatory. In other words, that person would go directly to heaven when they died, and completely by-pass purgatory.
John Tetzel, and those who traveled with him entered a town in a solemn processional with great fanfare. He set up a cross in the marketplace and delivered a sermon in which he told the simple folk that their parents were suffering in eternal flames of purgatory, begging for the release which they, their children, could give them. Then he held up a coffer and hollered out, “As soon as the coin in this coffer rings, the soul from Purgatory springs.” With such appeals, the money rolled in. Through this, St. Peter’s Square in the Vatican was built. [17]
Coffer
A metal pot with a long handle to collect money for indulgences.
The indulgent coins were placed in the pot and the jingle made noise
www/boostdam.net/1963TOURS/Summer/196
Martin Luther was horrified as he saw what the sale of indulgences was doing to the people. He witnessed the moral and ethical standards of his parish spiral downward. [18] Indulgences were giving the people a false sense of security, complacency regarding their faith, and a self-satisfied spirit, which was an insult to both the holiness and the love of God. [19] Luther, in his disgust, began to attack the sale of indulgences to his parishioners by speaking out with a series of bold statements which he declared he was ready to defend in a debate. He planned his statement to be presented on the eve before All Saints Day to show the people that the purchase of indulgences was a false tradition of the Roman Catholic Church.
Luther wrote his famous “Ninety-five Theses (statements) in Latin and posted them on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517, which is officially known as the dawn of the Reformation Period.
In these statements, Luther condemned the abuses of the indulgence system and challenged all those who entered the church to a debate.
The Reformation had begun!
End Notes
[1] Luther and the Reformation. Fortress Press. Philadelphia. 1953.
[2] http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/WestEurope/SpanInqui.html
[3] http://www.greatsite.com/timeline-english-bible-history/erasmus.html
[4] Cairns, Earle E. Christianity Through the Centuries. 3rd ed. Zondervan. 1996.
[5] Ibed
[6] Ibed
[7] Luther and the Reformation. Fortress Press. 1953.
[8] http://www.uni-erfurt.de/foreign/engl/portrait/intro.html
[9] http://www.susanlynnpeterson.com/luther/early.html
[10] http://www.susanlynnpeterson.com/luther/early.html
[11] Vos, Howard F. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publishers. Nashville, 1996.
[12] Luther and the Reformation. Fortress Press. 1953.
[13] Ibed
[14] Ibed
[15] Ibed
[16] Ibed
[17] Cairns, Earle E. Christianity Through the Centuries. 3rd ed. Zondervan. 1996.
[18] Vos, Howard F. Exploring Church History. Thomas Nelson Publisher. Nashville. 1996.
[19] Luther and the Reformation. Fortress Press. 1953.